Romanticism in Frankenstein Essays

Romanticism in Frankenstein Essays Romanticism in Frankenstein Essay Romanticism in Frankenstein Essay Essay Topic: Frankenstein Mary Shelleys novel Frankenstein is heavily influenced by romantic themes that present themselves throughout the text. Pressures brought on by the industrial revolution set in motion many significant changes to civilization at that time and created the movement know as romanticism. These social and political issues of the time in which the story was written played a large part in the overall subject matter. Environmental changes brought on by large populations congregating in cities with unhealthy living conditions along with the destruction of natural habitat led to disenchantment with the modern age. People began to revere nature and viewed it as the zenith of existence, whereas previously establishments such as religion or government were seen as the pinnacles of society. Victor signifies the views prevalent during the industrial revolution on life, wherein he sees only value of what he is to create, and does not take into consideration the unnatural implications. He is obsessed with accumulating knowledge of natural philosophy and lives a life isolated and alone as he grapples with the intricacies of his endeavor. But that is only so he can use it to surpass the boundaries of the natural world. He views life with a purely scientific perspective, which is counter intuitive to romantic principles. This leads to all of the sorrow which he experiences throughout the tale and is a lesson on the dangers of such values. The explorer Walton, whom Victor is attempting to dissuade from attempts at surpassing human limits, is himself on an expedition to try and conquer nature. Although he too will find that he is unable to triumph over the limitations God has set forth. The very monster Victor creates is a representation of romantic ideology early in the story, being able to live peacefully in nature and revel in all that he observes. But the monster soon regresses into a dark, gothic creature based on his interactions with human kind and the harsh treatment and situations he is exposed to. The monster eventually vows a vendetta on all of mankind and is representative of the harm that can come about through the creation of such an unnatural thing. The natural surroundings of the characters often plays a large role in their state of mind and overall mental well being. Victor uses the picturesque landscape of the mountains to try and escape the agony in which he is living following the murder of his brother and execution of his falsely accused iller. The monster relates to Victor many of his experiences while living in the wilderness with awe and pleasure. The proclamation that the monster makes about living in the wilds of South America with no one but his female counterpart shows that all he needs or desires can be found outside of civilized society. Shelley ultimately has a distaste of all things that are not in accord with the natural workings of our world and this view is apparent throughout her story Frankenstein. It appears that she places far more value on inter-personal relationships than on the pursuit of absolute knowledge.

The Complete IB Biology Syllabus SL and HL

The Complete IB Biology Syllabus SL and HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Oh, IB Biology. I took IB Biology SL back in my high school days. If you are looking at this syllabus, you're likely interested in taking the course or are currently enrolled in the course. In this article, I will go over the topics covered in IB Biology Standard Level and IB Biology Higher Level, as well as the number of hours dedicated to each topic along with what the IB expects you to understand for each topic. IB Biology SL and HL Core Both IB Biology SL and HL consist of the same core requirements (95 hours). Both classes cover the same six topics in the order listed below with the same subtopics listed below: Topic 1: Cell Biology- 15 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to cells 1.1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells. Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell. Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size. Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components. Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms. Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome. The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses. Ultrastructure of cells 1.2 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization. Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure. Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes. Membrane structure 1.3 Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic properties of phospholipid molecules. Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and function. Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes. Membrane transport 1.4 Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport. The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells by endocytosis or released by exocytosis. Vesicles move materials within cells. The origin of cells 1.5 Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells. The first cells must have arisen from non-living material. The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory. Cell division 1.6 Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei. Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis. Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells. Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle. Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary tumours. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic 2: Molecular Biology- 21 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Molecules to metabolism 2.1 Molecular biology explains living processes in terms of the chemical substances involved. Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds allowing a diversity of stable compounds to exist. Life is based on carbon compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Metabolism is the web of all the enzyme-catalysed reactions in a cell or organism. Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules including the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions. Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers. Water 2.2 Water molecules are polar and hydrogen bonds form between them. Hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent properties of water. Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. Carbohydrates and lipids 2.3 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers. Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers. Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol. Proteins 2.4 Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides. There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes. Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a huge range of possible polypeptides. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes. A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked together. The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional conformation of a protein. Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a wide range of functions. Every individual has a unique proteome. Enzymes 2.5 Enzymes have an active site to which specific substrates bind. Enzyme catalysis involves molecular motion and the collision of substrates with the active site. Temperature, pH and substrate concentration affect the rate of activity of enzymes. Enzymes can be denatured. Immobilized enzymes are widely used in industry. Structure of DNA and RNA 2.6 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides. DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the base composition and the type of pentose. DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs. DNA replication, transcription and translation 2.7 The replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on complementary base pairing. Helicase unwinds the double helix and separates the two strands by breaking hydrogen bonds. DNA polymerase links nucleotides together to form a new strand, using the pre-existing strand as a template. Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA base sequences by RNA polymerase. Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA according to the genetic code. Codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to one amino acid in a polypeptide. Translation depends on complementary base pairing between codons on mRNA and anticodons on tRNA. Cell respiration 2.8 Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell. Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose. Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose. Photosynthesis 2.9 Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy. Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the shortest wavelength and red the longest. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and reflects green light more than other colours. Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of water. Energy is needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds from carbon dioxide. Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are possible limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis. Topic 3: Genetics- 15 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Genes 3.1 A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and influences a specific characteristic. A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome. The various specific forms of a gene are alleles. Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases. New alleles are formed by mutation. The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an organism. The entire base sequence of human genes was sequenced in the Human Genome Project. Chromosomes 3.2 Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a circular DNA molecule. Some prokaryotes also have plasmids but eukaryotes do not. Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules associated with histone proteins. In a eukaryote species there are different chromosomes that carry different genes. Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not necessarily the same alleles of those genes. Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes. Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair. The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of members of a species. A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs of decreasing length. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and autosomes are chromosomes that do not determine sex. Meiosis 3.3 One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. The halving of the chromosome number allows a sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes. DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids. The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed by condensation. Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random. Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis halves the chromosome number. Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation. Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation. Inheritance 3.4 Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance with experiments in which large numbers of pea plants were crossed. Gametes are haploid so contain only one allele of each gene. The two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei during meiosis. Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene that may be the same allele or different alleles. Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles but co-dominant alleles have joint effects. Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles of autosomal genes, although some genetic diseases are due to dominant or co-dominant alleles. Some genetic diseases are sex-linked. The pattern of inheritance is different with sex-linked genes due to their location on sex chromosomes. Many genetic diseases have been identified in humans but most are very rare. Radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase the mutation rate and can cause genetic diseases and cancer. Genetic modification and biotechnology 3.5 Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins or fragments of DNA according to size. PCR can be used to amplify small amounts of DNA. DNA profiling involves comparison of DNA. Genetic modification is carried out by gene transfer between species. Clones are groups of genetically identical organisms, derived from a single original parent cell. Many plant species and some animal species have natural methods of cloning. Animals can be cloned at the embryo stage by breaking up the embryo into more than one group of cells. Methods have been developed for cloning adult animals using differentiated cells. Topic 4: Ecology- 12 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Species, communities and ecosystems 4.1 Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate populations. Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of nutrition (a few species have both methods). Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion. Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion. Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organisms by external digestion. A community is formed by populations of different species living together and interacting with each other. A community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the abiotic environment. Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic environment. The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling. Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time. Energy flow 4.2 Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight. Light energy is converted to chemical energy in carbon compounds by photosynthesis. Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains by means of feeding. Energy released from carbon compounds by respiration is used in living organisms and converted to heat. Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy. Heat is lost from ecosystems. Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of food chains and the biomass of higher trophic levels. Carbon cycling 4.3 Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds. In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs. Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere. Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground. Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere. Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils. Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous rocks. Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and fossilized organic matter. Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard parts that are composed of calcium carbonate and can become fossilized in limestone. Climate change 4.4 Carbon dioxide and water vapour are the most significant greenhouse gases. Other gases including methane and nitrogen oxides have less impact. The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave radiation as well as on its concentration in the atmosphere. The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat). Longer wave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that retain the heat in the atmosphere. Global temperatures and climate patterns are influenced by concentrations of greenhouse gases. There is a correlation between rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide since the start of the industrial revolution 200 years ago and average global temperatures. Recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide are largely due to increases in the combustion of fossilized organic matter. Topic 5: Evolution and Biodiversity- 12 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Evidence for evolution 5.1 Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change. The fossil record provides evidence for evolution. Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can cause evolution. Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in structure when there are differences in function. Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution. Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations matches the concept of gradual divergence. Natural selection 5.2 Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among members of the same species. Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation between individuals in a species. Adaptations are characteristics that make an individual suited to its environment and way of life. Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring while the less well adapted tend to die or produce fewer offspring. Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring. Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within the species. Classification of biodiversity 5.3 The binomial system of names for species is universal among biologists and has been agreed and developed at a series of congresses. When species are discovered they are given scientific names using the binomial system. Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa. All organisms are classified into three domains. The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa consist of all the species that have evolved from one common ancestral species. Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new evidence shows that a previous taxon contains species that have evolved from different ancestral species. Natural classifications help in identification of species and allow the prediction of characteristics shared by species within a group. Cladistics 5.4 A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor. Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from the base sequences of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein. Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive correlation between the number of differences between two species and the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Traits can be analogous or homologous. Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades. Evidence from cladistics has shown that classifications of some groups based on structure did not correspond with the evolutionary origins of a group or species. Topic 6: Human Physiology- 20 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Digestion and absorption 6.1 The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along the gut. The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine. Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine. Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out. Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins. Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients. The blood system 6.2 Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the tissues of the body. Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls. The muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining blood pressure between pump cycles. Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. Capillaries have permeable walls that allow exchange of materials between cells in the tissue and the blood in the capillary. Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body and return it to the atria of the heart. Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by preventing backflow. There is a separate circulation for the lungs. The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialized muscle cells in the right atrium called the sinoatrial node. The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker. The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that stimulates contraction as it is propagated through the walls of the atria and then the walls of the ventricles. The heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses brought to the heart through two nerves from the medulla of the brain. Epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare for vigorous physical activity. Defense against infectious disease 6.3 The skin and mucous membranes form a primary defense against pathogens that cause infectious disease. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting. Clotting factors are released from platelets. The cascade results in the rapid conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin. Ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic white blood cells gives non-specific immunity to diseases. Production of antibodies by lymphocytes in response to particular pathogens gives specific immunity. Antibiotics block processes that occur in prokaryotic cells but not in eukaryotic cells. Viruses lack a metabolism and cannot therefore be treated with antibiotics. Some strains of bacteria have evolved with genes that confer resistance to antibiotics and some strains of bacteria have multiple resistance. Gas exchange 6.4 Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries. Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchange. Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing surface tension. Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in bronchioles. Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate them. Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only do work when they contract. Neurons and synapses 6.5 Neurons transmit electrical impulses. The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory conduction. Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential. An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron. Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of neurons. Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents that cause each successive part of the axon to reach the threshold potential. Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells. When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse. A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached. Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction 6.6 Insulin and glucagon are secreted by ÃŽ ² and ÃŽ ± cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood glucose concentration. Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control body temperature. Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite. Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms. A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone. Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones. Additional Higher Level Topics Only students taking IB Biology HL cover these topics. They consist of 60 hours of study. Topic 7: Nucleic Acids- 9 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand DNA structure and replication (HL ONLY) 7.1 Nucleosomes help to supercoil the DNA. DNA structure suggested a mechanism for DNA replication. DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of a primer. DNA replication is continuous on the leading strand and discontinuous on the lagging strand. DNA replication is carried out by a complex system of enzymes. Some regions of DNA do not code for proteins but have other important functions. Transcription and gene expression (HL ONLY) 7.2 Transcription occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction. Nucleosomes help to regulate transcription in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA after transcription. Splicing of mRNA increases the number of different proteins an organism can produce. Gene expression is regulated by proteins that bind to specific base sequences in DNA. The environment of a cell and of an organism has an impact on gene expression. Translation (HL ONLY) 7.3 Initiation of translation involves assembly of the components that carry out the process. Synthesis of the polypeptide involves a repeated cycle of events. Disassembly of the components follows termination of translation. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within the cell. Bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion or for use in lysosomes. Translation can occur immediately after transcription in prokaryotes due to the absence of a nuclear membrane. The sequence and number of amino acids in the polypeptide is the primary structure. The secondary structure is the formation of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonding. The tertiary structure is the further folding of the polypeptide stabilized by interactions between R groups. The quaternary structure exists in proteins with more than one polypeptide chain. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic 8: Metabolism, Cell Respiration, and Photosynthesis- 14 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Metabolism (HL ONLY) 8.1 Metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions. Enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse. Enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive. Metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition. Cell respiration (HL ONLY) 8.2 Cell respiration involves the oxidation and reduction of electron carriers. Phosphorylation of molecules makes them less stable. In glycolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvate in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis gives a small net gain of ATP without the use of oxygen. In aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is decarboxylated and oxidized, and converted into acetyl compound and attached to coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A in the link reaction. In the Krebs cycle, the oxidation of acetyl groups is coupled to the reduction of hydrogen carriers, liberating carbon dioxide. Energy released by oxidation reactions is carried to the cristae of the mitochondria by reduced NAD and FAD. Transfer of electrons between carriers in the electron transport chain in the membrane of the cristae is coupled to proton pumping. In chemiosmosis protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate ATP. Oxygen is needed to bind with the free protons to maintain the hydrogen gradient, resulting in the formation of water. The structure of the mitochondrion is adapted to the function it performs. Photosynthesis (HL ONLY) 8.3 Light-dependent reactions take place in the intermembrane space of the thylakoids. Light-independent reactions take place in the stroma. Reduced NADP and ATP are produced in the light-dependent reactions. Absorption of light by photosystems generates excited electrons. Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light-dependent reactions. Transfer of excited electrons occurs between carriers in thylakoid membranes. Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to generate a proton gradient. ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient. Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP. In the light-independent reactions a carboxylase catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate. Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP. Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP and produce carbohydrates. Ribulose bisphosphate is reformed using ATP. The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to its function in photosynthesis. Topic 9: Plant Biology- 13 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Transport in the xylem of plants (HL ONLY) 9.1 Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf. Plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace losses from transpiration. The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem vessels allow transport under tension. The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate tension forces in leaf cell walls. Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of water by osmosis. Transport in the phloem of plants (HL ONLY) 9.2 Plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks. Incompressibility of water allows transport along hydrostatic pressure gradients. Active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve tubes at the source. High concentrations of solutes in the phloem at the source lead to water uptake by osmosis. Raised hydrostatic pressure causes the contents of the phloem to flow towards sinks. Growth in plants (HL ONLY) 9.3 Undifferentiated cells in the meristems of plants allow indeterminate growth. Mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells needed for extension of the stem and development of leaves. Plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex. Plant shoots respond to the environment by tropisms. Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin in plant tissue. Auxin influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression. Reproduction in plants (HL ONLY) 9.4 Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot apex. The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark periods in many plants. Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal. Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in sexual reproduction. Topic #10: Genetics and Evolution- 8 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Meiosis (HL ONLY) 10.1 Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis. Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chromatids. Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles on the chromosomes of the haploid cells. Chiasmata formation between non-sister chromatids can result in an exchange of alleles. Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I. Sister chromatids separate in meiosis II. Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. Inheritance (HL ONLY) 10.2 Gene loci are said to be linked if on the same chromosome. Unlinked genes segregate independently as a result of meiosis. Variation can be discrete or continuous. The phenotypes of polygenic characteristics tend to show continuous variation. Chi-squared tests are used to determine whether the difference between an observed and expected frequency distribution is statistically significant. Gene pools and speciation (HL ONLY) 10.3 A gene pool consists of all the genes and their different alleles, present in an interbreeding population. Evolution requires that allele frequencies change with time in populations. Reproductive isolation of populations can be temporal, behavioural or geographic. Speciation due to divergence of isolated populations can be gradual. Speciation can occur abruptly. Topic 11: Animal Physiology- 16 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Antibody production and vaccination (HL ONLY) 11.1 Every organism has unique molecules on the surface of its cells. Pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross species barriers. B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals. Activated B cells multiply to form clones of plasma cells and memory cells. Plasma cells secrete antibodies. Antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens. White cells release histamine in response to allergens. Histamines cause allergic symptoms. Immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells. Vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease. Fusion of a tumour cell with an antibody-producing plasma cell creates a hybridoma cell. Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells. Movement (HL ONLY) 11.2 Bones and exoskeletons provide anchorage for muscles and act as levers. Synovial joints allow certain movements but not others. Movement of the body requires muscles to work in antagonistic pairs. Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleate and contain specialized endoplasmic reticulum. Muscle fibres contain many myofibrils. Each myofibril is made up of contractile sarcomeres. The contraction of the skeletal muscle is achieved by the sliding of actin and myosin filaments. ATP hydrolysis and cross bridge formation are necessary for the filaments to slide. Calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin control muscle contractions. The kidney and osmoregulation (HL ONLY) 11.3 Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers. The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry out osmoregulation and removal of nitrogenous wastes. The composition of blood in the renal artery is different from that in the renal vein. The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule facilitate ultrafiltration. The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by active transport. The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla. ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct. The length of the loop of Henle is positively correlated with the need for water conservation in animals. The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlated with evolutionary history and habitat. Sexual reproduction (HL ONLY) 11.4 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm. Fertilization in animals can be internal or external. Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy. Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the continuation of pregnancy. HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy. The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and fetus. Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has formed. Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin. Options As a part of the IB Biology class, you'll cover one additional subject from the options below. (Typically you don’t choose, but rather your teacher does.) Whichever option you or your teacher chooses, you'll cover three or four topics (15 hours total) for SL and an additional two or three topics (25 hours total) for HL. Option A: Neurobiology and Behaviour- 15 Hours for SL and 25 hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Neural development A.1 The neural tube of embryonic chordates is formed by infolding of ectoderm followed by elongation of the tube. Neurons are initially produced by differentiation in the neural tube. Immature neurons migrate to a final location. An axon grows from each immature neuron in response to chemical stimuli. Some axons extend beyond the neural tube to reach other parts of the body. A developing neuron forms multiple synapses. Synapses that are not used do not persist. Neural pruning involves the loss of unused neurons. The plasticity of the nervous system allows it to change with experience. The human brain A.2 The anterior part of the neural tube expands to form the brain. Different parts of the brain have specific roles. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary processes in the body using centres located mainly in the brain stem. The cerebral cortex forms a larger proportion of the brain and is more highly developed in humans than other animals. The human cerebral cortex has become enlarged principally by an increase in total area with extensive folding to accommodate it within the cranium. The cerebral hemispheres are responsible for higher order functions. The left cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from sensory receptors in the right side of the body and the right side of the visual field in both eyes and vice versa for the right hemisphere. The left cerebral hemisphere controls muscle contraction in the right side of the body and vice versa for the right hemisphere. Brain metabolism requires large energy inputs. Perception of stimuli A.3 Receptors detect changes in the environment. Rods and cones are photoreceptors located in the retina. Rods and cones differ in their sensitivities to light intensities and wavelengths. Bipolar cells send the impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells. Ganglion cells send messages to the brain via the optic nerve. The information from the right field of vision from both eyes is sent to the left part of the visual cortex and vice versa. Structures in the middle ear transmit and amplify sound. Sensory hairs of the cochlea detect sounds of specific wavelengths. Impulses caused by sound perception are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve. Hair cells in the semicircular canals detect movement of the head. Additional HL Neurobiology and Behaviour Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Innate and learned behaviour (HL ONLY) A.4 Innate behaviour is inherited from parents and so develops independently of the environment. Autonomic and involuntary responses are referred to as reflexes. Reflex arcs comprise the neurons that mediate reflexes. Reflex conditioning involves forming new associations. Learned behaviour develops as a result of experience. Imprinting is learning occurring at a particular life stage and is independent of the consequences of behaviour. Operant conditioning is a form of learning that consists of trial and error experiences. Learning is the acquisition of skill or knowledge. Memory is the process of encoding, storing and accessing information. Neuropharmacology (HL ONLY) A.5 Some neurotransmitters excite nerve impulses in postsynaptic neurons and others inhibit them. Nerve impulses are initiated or inhibited in post-synaptic neurons as a result of summation of all excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters received from presynaptic neurones. Many different slow-acting neurotransmitters modulate fast synaptic transmission in the brain. Memory and learning involve changes in neurones caused by slow-acting neurotransmitters. Psychoactive drugs affect the brain by either increasing or decreasing postsynaptic transmission. Anesthetics act by interfering with neural transmission between areas of sensory perception and the CNS. Stimulant drugs mimic the stimulation provided by the sympathetic nervous system. Addiction can be affected by genetic predisposition, social environment and dopamine secretion. Ethology (HL ONLY) A.6 Ethology is the study of animal behaviour in natural conditions. Natural selection can change the frequency of observed animal behaviour. Behaviour that increases the chances of survival and reproduction will become more prevalent in a population. Learned behaviour can spread through a population or be lost from it more rapidly than innate behaviour. Option B: Biotechnology and Bioinformatics- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Microbiology: organisms in industry B.1 Microorganisms are metabolically diverse. Microorganisms are used in industry because they are small and have a fast growth rate. Pathway engineering optimizes genetic and regulatory processes within microorganisms. Pathway engineering is used industrially to produce metabolites of interest. Fermenters allow large-scale production of metabolites by microorganisms. Fermentation is carried out by batch or continuous culture. Microorganisms in fermenters become limited by their own waste products. Probes are used to monitor conditions within fermenters. Conditions are maintained at optimal levels for the growth of the microorganisms being cultured. Biotechnology in agriculture B.2 Transgenic organisms produce proteins that were not previously part of their species’ proteome. Genetic modification can be used to overcome environmental resistance to increase crop yields. Genetically modified crop plants can be used to produce novel products. Bioinformatics plays a role in identifying target genes. The target gene is linked to other sequences that control its expression. An open reading frame is a significant length of DNA from a start codon to a stop codon. Marker genes are used to indicate successful uptake. Recombinant DNA must be inserted into the plant cell and taken up by its chromosome or chloroplast DNA. Recombinant DNA can be introduced into whole plants, leaf discs or protoplasts. Recombinant DNA can be introduced by direct physical and chemical methods or indirectly by vectors. Environmental protection B.3 Responses to pollution incidents can involve bioremediation combined with physical and chemical procedures. Microorganisms are used in bioremediation. Some pollutants are metabolized by microorganisms. Cooperative aggregates of microorganisms can form biofilms. Biofilms possess emergent properties. Microorganisms growing in a biofilm are highly resistant to antimicrobial agents. Microorganisms in biofilms cooperate through quorum sensing. Bacteriophages are used in the disinfection of water systems. Additional HL Biotechnology and Bioinfomatics Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Medicine (HL ONLY) B.4 Infection by a pathogen can be detected by the presence of its genetic material or by its antigens. Predisposition to a genetic disease can be detected through the presence of markers. DNA microarrays can be used to test for genetic predisposition or to diagnose the disease. Metabolites that indicate disease can be detected in blood and urine. Tracking experiments are used to gain information about the localization and interaction of a desired protein. Biopharming uses genetically modified animals and plants to produce proteins for therapeutic use. Viral vectors can be used in gene therapy. Bioinformatics (HL ONLY) B.5 Databases allow scientists easy access to information. The body of data stored in databases is increasing exponentially. BLAST searches can identify similar sequences in different organisms. Gene function can be studied using model organisms with similar sequences. Sequence alignment software allows comparison of sequences from different organisms. BLASTn allows nucleotide sequence alignment while BLASTp allows protein alignment. Databases can be searched to compare newly identified sequences with sequences of known function in other organisms. Multiple sequence alignment is used in the study of phylogenetics. EST is an expressed sequence tag that can be used to identify potential genes. Option C: Ecology and Conservation- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Species and communities C.1 The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors. Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone species. Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions with other species. Interactions between species in a community can be classified according to their effect. Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat if their niches are identical. Communities and ecosystems C.2 Most species occupy different trophic levels in multiple food chains. A food web shows all the possible food chains in a community. The percentage of ingested energy converted to biomass is dependent on the respiration rate. The type of stable ecosystem that will emerge in an area is predictable based on climate. In closed ecosystems energy but not matter is exchanged with the surroundings. Disturbance influences the structure and rate of change within ecosystems. Impacts of humans on ecosystems C.3 Introduced alien species can escape into local ecosystems and become invasive. Competitive exclusion and the absence of predators can lead to reduction in the numbers of endemic species when alien species become invasive. Pollutants become concentrated in the tissues of organisms at higher trophic levels by biomagnification. Macroplastic and microplastic debris has accumulated in marine environments. Conservation of biodiversity C.4 An indicator species is an organism used to assess a specific environmental condition. Relative numbers of indicator species can be used to calculate the value of a biotic index. In situ conservation may require active management of nature reserves or national parks. Ex situ conservation is the preservation of species outside their natural habitats. Biogeographic factors affect species diversity. Richness and evenness are components of biodiversity. Additional HL Ecology and Conservation Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Population ecology (HL ONLY) C.5 Sampling techniques are used to estimate population size. The exponential growth pattern occurs in an ideal, unlimited environment. Population growth slows as a population reaches the carrying capacity of the environment. The phases shown in the sigmoid curve can be explained by relative rates of natality, mortality, immigration and emigration. Limiting factors can be top down or bottom up. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles (HL ONLY) C.6 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. Rhizobium associates with roots in a mutualistic relationship. In the absence of oxygen denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrate in the soil. Phosphorus can be added to the phosphorus cycle by application of fertilizer or removed by the harvesting of agricultural crops. The rate of turnover in the phosphorus cycle is much lower than the nitrogen cycle. Availability of phosphate may become limiting to agriculture in the future. Leaching of mineral nutrients from agricultural land into rivers causes eutrophication and leads to increased biochemical oxygen demand. Option D: Human Physiology- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Human nutrition D.1 Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, therefore they have to be included in the diet. Dietary minerals are essential chemical elements. Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be synthesized by the body. Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential. Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins. Malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess of nutrients in the diet. Appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus. Overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and type II diabetes. Starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue. Digestion D.2 Nervous and hormonal mechanisms control the secretion of digestive juices. Exocrine glands secrete to the surface of the body or the lumen of the gut. The volume and content of gastric secretions are controlled by nervous and hormonal mechanisms. Acid conditions in the stomach favour some hydrolysis reactions and help to control pathogens in ingested food. The structure of cells of the epithelium of the villi is adapted to the absorption of food. The rate of transit of materials through the large intestine is positively correlated with their fibre content. Materials not absorbed are egested. Functions of the liver D.3 The liver removes toxins from the blood and detoxifies them. Components of red blood cells are recycled by the liver. The breakdown of erythrocytes starts with phagocytosis of red blood cells by Kupffer cells. Iron is carried to the bone marrow to produce hemoglobin in new red blood cells. Surplus cholesterol is converted to bile salts. Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in hepatocytes produce plasma proteins. The liver intercepts blood from the gut to regulate nutrient levels. Some nutrients in excess can be stored in the liver. The heart D.4 Structure of cardiac muscle cells allows propagation of stimuli through the heart wall. Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause contraction cannot pass directly from atria to ventricles. There is a delay between the arrival and passing on of a stimulus at the atrioventricular node. This delay allows time for atrial systole before the atrioventricular valves close. Conducting fibres ensure coordinated contraction of the entire ventricle wall. Normal heart sounds are caused by the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves closing causing changes in blood flow. Additional HL Human Physiology Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Hormones and metabolism (HL ONLY) D.5 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm of the target cell to form a receptor–hormone complex. The receptor–hormone complex promotes the transcription of specific genes. Peptide hormones bind to receptors in the plasma membrane of the target cell. Binding of hormones to membrane receptors activates a cascade mediated by a second messenger inside the cell. The hypothalamus controls hormone secretion by the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland. Hormones secreted by the pituitary control growth, developmental changes, reproduction and homeostasis. Transport of respiratory gases (HL ONLY) D.6 Oxygen dissociation curves show the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Carbon dioxide is carried in solution and bound to hemoglobin in the blood. Carbon dioxide is transformed in red blood cells into hydrogencarbonate ions. The Bohr shift explains the increased release of oxygen by hemoglobin in respiring tissues. Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood pH. The rate of ventilation is controlled by the respiratory control centre in the medulla oblongata. During exercise the rate of ventilation changes in response to the amount of CO2 in the blood. Fetal hemoglobin is different from adult hemoglobin allowing the transfer of oxygen in the placenta onto the fetal hemoglobin. Practical Scheme of Work You also need to complete experiments and experimental reports as a part of any IB Science course. For SL, there is 40 hours of material. For HL, there is 60 hours of material. Here are the activities: Practical activities: 20 hours for SL and 40 hours for HL Lab work in class counts towards these hours Individual investigation (internal assessment-IA): 10 hours for SL and HL A lab project along with a report that counts as 20% of your IB exam scores (written exam counts for the other 80%) Group 4 Project:10 hours for SL and HL Students are separated into groups and must conduct an experiment and write a report. Experiments may not be this cool. What’s Next? Thinking about taking AP Biology instead? Learn what's covered in a AP Bio here. Looking for more in-depth explorations of the topics mentioned on this syllabus? Read our subject-specific articles on topics varying from the photosynthesis equation to homologous and analogous structures to cell biology (including cell theory, enzymes, and how the cell membrane and endoplasmic reticulum work). Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Unauthorized Practice of Law by Legal Assistants and Paralegals Research Paper

Unauthorized Practice of Law by Legal Assistants and Paralegals - Research Paper Example The ABA adopted in 1997 the following definition:   Ã¢â‚¬Å"A legal assistant or paralegal is a person qualified by education, training or work experience who is employed or retained by a lawyer, law office, corporation, governmental agency or other entity who performs specifically delegated substantive legal work for which a lawyer is responsible.†   The ABA adopted in 1997 the following definition:   Ã¢â‚¬Å"A legal assistant or paralegal is a person qualified by education, training or work experience who is employed or retained by a lawyer, law office, corporation, governmental agency or other entity who performs specifically delegated substantive legal work for which a lawyer is responsible.†   According to the National Association of Legal Assistants, or NALA, certain standard determines the qualifications of a paralegal (http://www.nala.org/98model.htm).   To be accredited a paralegal or legal assistant, one has to undertake the following:   1. Successful completion of the Certified Legal Assistant (CLA)/Certified Paralegal (CP) certifying examination of the National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc.;2. Graduation from an ABA approved a program of study for legal assistants;3. Graduation from a course of study for legal assistants which is institutionally accredited but not ABA approved, and which requires not less than the equivalent of 60 semester hours of classroom study;4. Graduation from a course of study for legal assistants, other than those set forth in (2) and (3) above, plus not less than six months of in-house training as a legal assistant;5. A baccalaureate degree in any field, plus not less than six months in-house training as a legal assistant;6. A minimum of three years of law-related experience under the supervision of an attorney, including at least six months of in-house training as a legal assistant; or7. Two years of in-house training as a legal assistant.   For purposes of these Standards, "in-house trainin g as a legal assistant" means attorney education of the employee concerning legal assistant duties. In addition to the review and analysis of assignments, the legal assistant should receive a reasonable amount of instruction directly related to the duties and obligations of the legal assistant.

Protection of wages Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Protection of wages - Case Study Example Protection of Wages: The General conference of International Labour Organisation, has been convened at Geneva on 8th June 1949.As per C95- Protection of Wages Convention 1949, the employee has several protections. Some of the relevant articles are discussed here:As per Article 4, National laws or regulations, collective agreements or arbitration awards may authorise the partial payment of wages in the form of allowances in kind in industries or occupations in which payment in the form of such allowances is customary or desirable because of the nature of the industry or occupation concerned. Under this article it is stressed that the allowance is required to be appropriate for the benefit of the employee and the amount of such allowance shall be fair and justified. In case an employer is paying some allowance to the employee, which is more than the justified payment, then the employer can deduct such payment.Article 8 states that the deduction from wages by the employer is permitted o nly under the regulatory control of the national laws or as decided by the arbitration award. Workers shall be informed about the most appropriate reasons and conditions applicable for such kind of deductions. It is obvious that no employer has the authority to deduct the wages if there is no such provision made by the national regulation or by arbitration. Without informing the reasons of deductions, the employer has no authority to deduct the wages. (â€Å"Protection of Wages Convention 1949†, n.d.)The legal restrictions on the deduction of payment are as follows: ... boarding, lodging as governed by the employment standards (d) advance pay recovery or erroneous pay correction (e) any deduction, agreed by the employee, which benefits the employee. An employee can deduct the cost of tools from the wages of the employee - (a) If it is a precondition in the employment that the employee must own the special tools, then the supply of such tools by the employer, makes the deductions from wages as an appropriate measure. (b) The employee may be using the tools for job at other employers. (c) The tools may be available from other suppliers but the employee bought it from the employer. The employer cannot make any deductions towards the safety and health legislation. Any equipment, clothing required to be worn by the employee for personal safety must be supplied by the employer at its own cost. Cost of safety equipments and clothing are directly beneficial to the employer, that's why they are not deducted from the wages of employee. ("Deductions from wages", n.d.) Equal Pay: Employers must offer equal pay to men and women irrespective of gender: (a) if they are employed for similar or "like work" (b) if the job evaluation treats both kind of jobs as equivalent. (c) the value of work is recognized equal. As per the employment terms equal work shall offer equal payment irrespective of gender. An individual employee has the protection of claim under Equal Pay Act 1970 in an employment Tribunal. The employee can seek for the claim within six months after leaving the employment. ("Rights at work", n.d.) The employees are protected by the UK registered ship contracts: Under this contract or legislation, the wage of an employee is

Employee Participation Essay Example for Free

Employee Participation Essay Of all the subjects controlled by the societal, public, and employment strategy set by the European Union (EU), the intrinsic worth of implementing worker participation in the administration of businesses on a wide extent has turned out to be highly contentious over the years. The stipulations put forward by the EU, for example, equivalent opportunities for employees as that of employers, operational or working timing, and unusual contracts, all of them, time and again, have triggered disagreements amid employers. Despite the fact that an increasing number of organizations are turning out to be of interest in employee participation as a possible measure for expanding labor efficiency and trimming down nonattendance, staff resignation rate, and rate of recurrence of industrial disagreements. Considered as the most hostile and invasive, is that kind of employee participation, which outwardly inflicts constrictions on the management’s perquisites or their privilege for that matter. Traditional executives dread, though, that due to the pressures on an employee participation system, grounding on their temporary, peculiar interests would, among other things, steer to too much wage upsurge. These could possibly lead to a decline of internal principal on hand for investing or capital spending in the short run and for moving the available capital out of the country in the long run. It is much unexpected that there has been very slight economic evaluation of the present familiarity with employee participation. The majority of researches have dealt with the topic entirely from a philosophical, historical, or sociological perspective. (Svejnar, pp. 1, n. d. ) Recently, employee participation has grown into a central point in labor-management discourse and a significant matter on the European political arena. (Raskin, n. p. , 1976) In certain countries systemized work force has been revealing an urge for involvement in management, as a way of democratizing the whole business systems and policies. Lately, though, this gravity has intensified, nonetheless, creating numerous problems, which are in fact, compounded by a number of reasons, one, and a very major, of which is the utter assortment of standing official and legal frameworks within the associate states of the EU. Various Systems followed by the EU Member States Considering the member states of the EU, the employee participation and representation at executive level, for instance, is obligatory in private corporations situated in Germany, Austria, Luxembourg, and most Scandinavian countries. On the other hand, countries like France and the Netherlands practice the ‘hybrid form’, while there are still others like Greece and Spain, which allow for this kind of system only in the communal or public sector. In contrast, countries such as, Italy, Belgium and the UK constitute no stipulation at all. (EIRO, pp. I-IV, 1998) The principles and conventions regulating works councils and coalition representation at workplace or sub-executive levels evenly complicated. In the Scandinavian countries, Italy, Ireland and the UK, there happens to be ‘single channels’ of representation via the joint associations. In case of ‘dual channel’ system of representation, the employees are spoken for by work councils, which function beside the unions. In countries like France and Belgium, the manager presides over the work council; however in the majority of other countries, for example Portugal, the Netherlands, and Germany, the work councils simply contain employee representatives. On the other hand, in Ireland and the UK, employee representation has conventionally been identified merely on a voluntary base, even though elsewhere it is regulated by established rules or communal agreements. Rationales The concepts of a ‘democratic organization’, ‘employee involvement and ‘employee participation’ have sustained arguments and disagreements. The degree to which the management is ready to let their employees to take part in matters concerning decisions about their lives at work is in fact one of the most complicated, vibrant debated features of employment relations as they have developed in technologically advanced countries. All concerned parties differ in their interests and viewpoints. In general, the managers suppose that the employees should be assimilated into organization’s frameworks to make certain that they realize the organization’s intentions, targets and objectives and can add into its success. Unions, on the other hand, may possibly be keen to hold out their impact over the management’s decision making to making sure that their own priorities, for example power over work patterns, or in cases when employment patterns are stable, are suitably met. System Followed by Germany The system of employee participation is developed and regulated by the German co-determination law. This law making has its origin in the Weimar Constitution of 1919, which, grounded on a social-democratic philosophy, created constraints on personal rights over possessions and took care for the social privileges and entitlement to life of its people. Under the Article No. 65 of the very Constitution, it was publicly stated that the waged working staff was to be granted correspondence with managers in settling with salaries and working circumstances and to be allowed a full opportunity to express opinions when deciding the overall economic advancement. The 1920 Works Councils Act specified that organizations with no less than twenty workers ought to set up a works council made up of representatives opted for at workplaces, which consult with the board on the carrying out of business objectives. Two years later, the directive was revised to allow works council representation of a couple of their members in directorial management of corresponding organizations and restricted involvement in the board’s decision making process. These were the fundamental developments that molded the base for co-determination law. Both the Weimar Constitution and the Works Council were done away with as the Nazi’s rule made its entrance. The directive, on the other hand, was revitalized in the shape of the Coal, Iron and Steel Industry Co-determination Act of 1951. The Act was originally designed for the coal and steel firms employing greater than a thousand employees but then later, in 1976, the Co-determination Act enfolding all large organizations was legislated and is presently in effect. In case of major and significant organizations, the present structure grants for an equal number of twenty representatives to in the same way be represented by stockholders and employees, with the stockholders decided on at the general stockholders’ meeting. The worker representatives include delegates from workers’ associations and those chosen from all the different levels of workers. The twofold technique of industrial relations in Germany has maintained collective bargaining and the ascertaining of salary and specifications, not together with the subject of participation for example information release, discussions, meetings and co-determination. Here the industrial relations system has been portrayed as ‘sanctioned, integrated, and cooperative’. Focusing on the effects of employee participatory system in Germany, regarding the wages, both in short and long-run, the representation is said to be quite a fruitful one, because it gives evident examples of several participatory systems from the post World War II events to the Co determination law of 1951, which provided employees with 50% representation on the executive boards. The very Act is also said to have created the rank of a labor director on the management panels of all corporations. Despite of the fact that the employee participatory and representative groups in Germany were considered as distinct from the trade unions and the process of wage determination, an uncertainty comes up that whether their effect on wages was in fact missing. In real, there happens to be a considerable connection between unions and the employee representative groups in relation to their workforce, their objectives and activities. But without any reason, it is said that the union and board representatives diverge substantially in their opinions as to the influence of employee participation and representation on wages. Having a unique system of employee participation in corporate management, the German corporate system is said to have some gain. The very advantage appears when it is about effectively testing out and verifying mistreatments by the management. The German corporate system is a twofold one, where the administrative management performs the role of corporate surveillance, whereas the executive board accountable for execution. Originally, the Co determination Act was envisioned to arbitrate the possible disagreements or conflicting interests between the employees and employers and was highly in the favor of workforce. Currently it has been moving on, assuming to an increased level, the function of managing the corporate administration. Although there is some disapproval regarding the fact that the legislation has mislaid its essence with reported circumstances where the board treated employee representatives, in a way to high officials accommodated for and by them, it stays to be a considerable extent to elevate the understanding of societal responsibilities and obligations amid corporate managers and their movements for public causes. (Otsuka, pp. 3, 2006) System followed in the UK In the UK, the whole world is observed through a prism of collective bargaining by unions, which has provided industrial relations with an argumentative placement. Contrasting with the ‘sanctioned, integrated, and cooperative’ industrial relations followed in Germany, the UK’s system is ‘voluntary, dispersed, and opposition-based’. (William, pp. V, 1988) However, such divergences haven’t been taken much into consideration by the Commission of the European Communities, when it is time for them to propose systems of employee participation. In the year 1970, the European company statute and the Fifth directive were founded widely on the basis of the German model but did not have much appeal for the UK. Moreover, amid the important factors, particularly governments, point of views regarding employee participation have gone through periods of interest and aggression. Taking successive UK governments as instances, the governments in the 1970s, both the Conservative and Labour, were normally in favour of the propositions included in the European company statute and the Fifth directive for employee participation and representation at management’s level. But on the other hand, in the 1980s and 1990s, the Conservative governments were unbendingly against all systems of employee participation, even though these situations were, as a minimum, partly looked over when the succeeding Labour government, in 1997, endorsed the social chapter, and in so doing established European Works Councils into the UK. (Gold, pp. 2 , n. d. ) If looked upon in the past, the Commission has been prosperous in achieving approval for the system of employee participation when it is connected with certain areas of industrial relations. According to the 1975 directive on collective redundancies, the employers are required to notify employee representatives concerning the particulars and to refer to them with a view to pursuing an agreement. Then there was an ‘acquired rights directive’ of 1977, after that, the ‘health and safety framework directive’ of 1989, which provided the employees the privilege to acquire information on threat considerations and safety measures. More recently, the statute adopted in 2004, provides employee representatives in the organizations included several rights to information and consultation without any bias. However, the implementation of all these employee rights has time and again, proved challenging in the UK, because the commandments put away the characterization of ‘employee representatives’ up to the state’s legislation. Under the critical environment of sinking union membership, and prior to the arrival of legislative stipulations for union recognition, leave alone worker representation, this has implied that managers frequently do not possess representatives to advise or consult. In 1994, the European Court of Justice, brought forward two litigations against the UK for failing to suitably implement the directives passed in 1975, and the transfer of responsibilities, instructed that it was mandatory for all the EU states to establish appropriate systems for assigning suitable employee representatives. In the UK, the Bullock Committee was established by the government to assess the matter of executive-level employee representation, but managers and several other officials of the labour movement proved intimidating, and the Conservative governments voted for during the course of 1980s and 1990s ruled out any possibility of lawmaking on the issue, as it has a need of an undisputed, common vote on the Council. Nonetheless, a Green Paper was published in 1975, by the Commission, to inspect the major disagreements provoked. The Social and Economic Committee along with the European Parliament both argued upon the topic in detail. To close, the Commission assumed an amended text, in 1953, on the draft Fifth which has not been withdrawn officially up till now. Conclusion In my opinion, keeping in mind all the aforementioned prospects of employee participation and representation, the UK should certainly respect all the directives passed by the EU and all other Unions formed in coalition with all the European states and should give up its present times general framework, under which representation only occurs through unions, and which leaves large gaps in stipulation in those organizations where union membership is vulnerable and sometimes even non-existent. It is necessary for the UK to revive itself from being isolated in the Council, and should bring about measures in order to mobilise its blocking minority. Following the German twofold system, which is better in every way, and also being successful in introducing European Works Councils, it has been foreseen and seen respectively, by the UK employers themselves that this has enhanced their effectiveness in granting a medium for information exchange

Captain Ahab of Moby Dick :: essays papers

Captain Ahab of Moby Dick Captain Ahab in the novel Moby Dick is quite a character. He is the Captain of the whaling ship the Pequod and is out on a voyage to kill the great white whale named Moby Dick. Throughout his journey on sea, Ahab maintains focus on one thing, and only one thing, killing Moby Dick. It comes to show throughout the story that a close-minded man is blind to his surroundings. On a whaling mission before, Ahab's leg was bitten off by the white whale, and ever since then, Ahab has focused only on the revenge he will get when he kills the whale. The captain's prosthetic leg is then made out of the jawbone of Moby Dick. Ahab's leg becomes a constant reminder of the whale, and a constant motivation for his revenge. Some might describe that character of Ahab to be insane and at times evil. I do not believe he is insane. In a section of the movie, Ahab is seen speaking with Starbuck calmly, and actually sharing his feelings with the crewmember. These are not actions of an insane man. Ahab shows true feeling for Starbuck and his mates. I also do not believe the captain is an evil character. I do believe he became obsessed and in a way infatuated with Moby Dick. He seems to me to be a very ambitious man; there is nothing wrong with wanting and desiring to achieve a goal. On the other hand, being ambitious, and focusing so much on one thing in life that you become blind, are two different things. Ahab is guilty of this. He lets Moby Dick run his life; he desires revenge so badly that it becomes all he thinks about, all he cares about, all of him. Ahab even becomes restless at night because of the whale. It seems to me that Ahab needs Moby Dick to survive, yet in return, Ahab wants to kill him. A lesson is to be learned from Ahab. Keep your eyes open to those around you, and other things that are in your life. If you dwell on the negatives, and of revenge, you're life becomes a waste.

Onus of Ethical Lapses Lies on Business Schools

Concept Paper Seminars in HRM Final Project Bushra Fatima, MBA 2k8 13 May, 2010 th Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 2 Ethical Lapses in Businesses: Onus lies on B Schools? I joined NUST Business School two years back, after I did my engineering degree. The logical premise, I gave to justify my choice to enter a Business school was not that I was passionate about studying business administration in anyway, but was the fact that the MBA is a good add-on to my degree, ensuring better and well paying career options in the long run. In my view back then, a business school was meant to churn out managers, like so many medical and engineering schools that churn out doctors and engineers. By the end of my first semester of MBA, my perception was changed. Getting an MBA doesn’t make you a manager. Management is more of a practice, something that needs to be done outside the safe environment of Business school. According to one of my professors: â€Å"It’s like swimming; you cannot learn it by sitting cozy in an air-conditioned classroom listening to the lecture†. However, like most professions you need to understand the theory behind the practice. Hence, the case with teaching ethics in business schools and the responsibility of the institute to instill ethical values in the students is challenged. Business people act in unethical ways when they start evaluating the risk and rewards of being a moral person. Business school should teach that economic analysis is only helpful and proper when all of the options being considered are morally correct. Aristotle believed ethics was more than just learning a set of rules. Ethics was a way of living. â€Å"One becomes a lute player by playing the lute, one becomes a builder by building; likewise, one becomes courageous by doing courageous acts (a virtue for Aristotle)†¦ † Before I hold the business schools responsible for the ethical lapses that happen in the business world, let us delve into some reality check. Can ethics be taught? Studies show that MBA alters how students view businesses and their roles and responsibilities as managers. Students bring in their ethics and moral values which may be hard to transform all together but a slight change in attitudes may be infused in them during the course of study. However, even if the student learns complete theory associated with ethics, there is no guarantee that what he does outside the class would be in conformance with what he has learnt in class. Unless, the class learning is supported by a value structure of the student’s environment on campus and at home, a message of double standards is sent. That brings me to what the student really learns in the business school and what is emphasized upon during his tenure there. When a student is taught about leadership for example, the emphasis is on business leader’s gain in terms of wealth and building multibillion dollar enterprises rather than what they have contributed to the society or what change they have made for the betterment of humanity. The business schools tend to give a myopic view of success and leadership to the students equating success with monetary gain thus monetization of the concept of leadership. A profitable enterprise according to the business schools are ones which works towards increasing short term monetary gains for the shareholder instead of emphasizing on sustainable growth and benefiting all stakeholders in long term. Thus, indoctrination of money mindedness in done to the extent of poisoning the young mind to think ethics as old school philosophy which stands in the way of success. Overall business schools convey a subtle but lethal message of privilege. Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 3 The business school teaching methodology that puts too much emphasis on case study system gives a false confidence to the student that he knows how to solve real life problems. He is encouraged to make use of the economic models without taking into account the variety of problems and issues that may arise as a result of those decisions. The application of the knowledge is taken as a means to a definite end without enabling him to do critical analysis. He is taught how to solve problems but he is not taught think about the side effects of his decisions. The cases highlight success stories and emphasize on numerical and financial aspects without focusing much on the nitty gritty humanistic details. Another problem is that each dimension of business is taught more or less in isolation. The marketing people emphasize on marketing aspects, the finance people emphasize on the financials and the human resource people see things through their own colored glass thus isolating the student from the intricate details of implications resulting from their skewed decisions. The ethics aspect in most case discussions is never emphasized and students are seldom told what not to do. It is important for the students to come up with smart solutions and strategies and they should be able to state their financial viability but nobody questions the ethical viability. For many students ethics equals to norms. Norms they say is how things are done usually which can mean that people can justify their actions just because it is largely acceptable. This leads us to the bandwagon and group think mentality which exists among students. As a society we function collectively. So if it is socially acceptable to bribe, people are going to do it without questioning morality of the action. Business schools, or for that matter any school of learning is responsible to bring a change in the trend of blind followership and enable critical thinking; thus, contributing to evolution of societies. We live in an ethically dysfunctional society. We don’t teach our children to be responsible citizens; instead we emphasize on competing and being the best. We teach children that it’s a jungle out there where survival is that of the fittest. When it comes to making a career choice, we impose that career is one which gives a better return on the money invested on education; thus, forcing them to take up careers not out of passion but out of economic need. This vicious cycle which starts at home makes young minds believe that being successful is equivalent to how much money somebody makes. The educational system also reiterates the same fact, when children are divided into art and science group, on the basis of the grades they get. Aptitude and intelligence is quantified by how much marks a kid gets. If somebody is in a profession such as teaching it is undervalued, because it pays less, and is often the perception that somebody who is a failure otherwise, ends up teaching. Little emphasis is placed on how one can benefit the society by adopting a certain profession; same is the case with people going to business schools. Business school students are there to benefit themselves. Through their induction systems business schools hunt for the overtly ambitious, people who are aggressive and who seek to reach the top at all costs. People who once out of the rigorous and fierce system seek quick success and try to win position of importance in top of the line firms. While business schools have excelled at producing graduates that demonstrate competence in engineering investment products based on complex mathematical models and implementing students exceptional ability at marketing and optimizing productivity, little has been done to enlighten the Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 4 student as to how to use his/her acquired intellectual virtues in a manner which promotes morality. Although students leave the university environment excelling with intellectual resources, there is no attempt being made to demonstrate how these attributes can be used to habituate excellence of character. Business schools tend to minimize their responsibility to indoctrinate students with a sense of moral obligation or a proclivity towards the pursuit of moral excellence. I am not saying that being ambitious is wrong. Somebody who is taking up MBA is supposed to be ambitious but that ambition running into raw greed is dangerous. The lust for success and narrow selfish gain is when a person is forced to resort to unethical behavior. The economic models taught at most business schools take away the humanistic element and talk about bottom line and how important is it to achieve that. It infuses a dog-eat-dog attitude among students. Altruism and social responsibility is ridiculed and called soft aspects and are often ignored. The responsibility of business schools starts from the induction process of candidates. They need to assess that people they are lining up to take up positions of power are ethically sound people and are bent on doing good for all the stakeholders instead of just making money and fame for themselves. Ethical values should be made part of the selection criteria and should have more weightage than brilliant academic credentials and qualifications. This is under the premise that you cannot transform ethical values of a person by teaching him ethics in classroom. So this is a better way to take out the bad eggs in the first place. The selection committee should see that the student is willing to work for the betterment of the society and this should reflect on his profile as part of his credentials. Also the candidate’s reference checks should be made and the information given on his profile should be verified in order to make a correct character assessment. However, even if the corrective system is in place it doesn’t ensure hundred percent that ethical lapses won’t happen. As long as there is bigger personal stake involved, unethical practices will take place. One would always question what is in it for them to act ethical, when the bigger gain and recognition goes to someone who cut corners and got away with it. The importance of teaching ethics cannot be ignored as it makes us question every action’s ethical validity. However, the responsibility of business schools is not just to preach ethics in the classroom but to infuse ethics at all levels and balancing the values taught with values practiced. The prevalent belief of innocent until proven guilty gives a chance to students to play around with the system and to get away with questionable behavior. Cheating for that matter is a tolerable action until you are caught. The competition is so tough that students tend to use all means whether fair or unfair to get good grades. For them, ethical are all those actions for which they don’t end up punished. The business schools like any other professional institution should have a â€Å"Hippocratic professional code of conduct† and anybody found to be going against it should be made to pay by dismissal from the profession altogether. In Pakistan where corruption has become a norm an element of change is needed and business schools can play their role in this regard. Top notch business schools should have the power to scrap the degree of those graduates who get involved in unethical behavior such as our ex-prime minister who was an IBA graduate and was alleged of being involved in money laundering. Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 5 The curriculum in the business schools should not teach ethics as an isolated course, focusing on philosophy, which end up making the young minds more confused. Rather, ethics should be directed to instruct students to make ethically sound decisions based on rational thought measuring the implications in the real world. Students should be aware of the examples of those who did not comply with ethics and ended up losing everything including their reputation so that they know the dire consequences and think twice before engaging in questionable behavior. The strategy class for example should teach the students not just to build a strategic direction of the company in order to maximize short term profits but also to make choices which go hand in hand with company’s values that can guide their overall culture on the basis of which sustainable growth of an enterprise is achieved. The curriculum in business schools should be such that it encourages out of the box thinking instead of limiting and confining the thought to achieving profits that are investor and company centric. Courses should enable looking at the bigger picture, looking at not short term gains but long term implications on economic, human and environmental development. The purpose of business studies should not be just to prepare students to excel in the prevalent business world but also to find faults in it and try to evolve the system for the better. Business students should be able to criticize business model’s viability, they should be able to challenge the basic assumptions and redesign and re-engineer theories, which in the first place are responsible for the current economic crisis faced by today’s world. The business school curriculum should encompass courses that ignite student’s creativity and encourage him to innovate and come up with viable solutions which benefit the society. Projects with focus on solving global problems such as energy crises or greener planet should be encouraged, as they infuse a spirit of global leadership which is meant to bring a positive change. For a developing country like Pakistan such a focus is imperative as we have been a victim of the capitalist mind set in which the wealthy have become wealthier and the poor have become poorer. We are a debt ridden country and sustainable development is answer to all our problems. So, the top notch business schools are responsible to give back leaders who are focused on creating wealth not just for themselves but create an opportunity of living a better life for millions. To sum it all, the burden of responsibility of ethical lapses of business leaders lie on business schools as the system somewhat creates an unharnessed greed for personal success. This needs to be controlled through redesigning the curriculum and the existing environment, which teaches them to be responsible and creates ethically sound leaders instead of shrewd businessmen. Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 6 MBA: In Spirit The MBA is meant to be a holistic degree one which infuses analytical ability, provides a sound based of practical knowledge on basis of which decisions can be made. The two year MBA program is challenging and rigorous which does not only infuses a spirit of competition in the student but teaches him to collaborate and work in teams to get greater success. The program is meant to groom a student’s leadership qualities and gives him courage and knowledge to pursue his ambitions. The MBA is not an end in itself, but a means to an end. It is a degree designed to give you the ability to develop your career to its fullest potential, at an accelerated pace. What will you get out of an MBA? Aside from a powerful life experience, the MBA degree should supply three main value propositions: Skills, Networks, and Brand. Skills These include the â€Å"hard skills† of economics, finance, marketing, operations, management, and accounting, as well as the â€Å"soft skills† of leadership, teamwork, ethics, and communication that are so critical for effective management. MBA students acquire these skills inside and outside the classroom. Since MBA programs attract people from very diverse industries and cultures, a program should be able to leverage these differences and translate them into learning opportunities. Networks An MBA degree program offers access to a network of MBA students, alumni, faculty, and business and community leaders. This network can be very useful when beginning a job search, developing a career path, building business relationships in your current career, or pursuing expertise outside your current field. For example, entrepreneurs need access to capital, business partners, vendors, and clients. Artsrelated businesses need access to funding and strategic management in order to position themselves to be relevant in the marketplace. Global businesses need access to local business cultures as they expand their enterprises to new territories. Brand The MBA degree is a recognized brand that signifies management and leadership training. The particular school and type of MBA program you attend also have brand associations that can help open doors based on the school's reputation. The strength of a school's brand is based on the program's history, its ability to provide students with technical skills and opportunities for personal growth, and the reach of its alumni and industry network. A powerful brand can give you the flexibility to make changes throughout your career. Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 7 Concluding Note I believe that MBA should not have specializations in it. It should be a holistic degree in every sense covering courses critical in making organizational strategies. There should be emphasis on leadership and ethical practices. The intent of MBA should be to give the student confidence and help him in career growth. Critical Analysis of Human Resource Management It’s a cliche for organizations in today’s modern high performance corporate world to say that â€Å"people are our greatest assets†. But today the importance of it is all the more accepted. Human capital is a competitive advantage that competitors cannot imitate. So, human resource management and the practices associated with it have become accepted by managers in all forms of organizations as one of the most important strategic levers to ensure continuing success. The Origins Traditionally known as â€Å"personnel management†, was largely an outcome of increased government regulations regarding employment conditions, discrimination, employments rights, health and safety concerns etc. In many organizations today, this older notion of personnel administration still holds sway with its emphasis on rules and regulation. The modern concept of â€Å"human resource management† finds its roots in the 19th and 20th century by the end of the industrial revolution in United States. The notion of employee welfare came into light when managers started to face issues with work force control mainly due to influx of immigrants in the workforce. During this time methods of workforce control were devised and F. W. Taylor came up with the concept of scientific management. Later Henry Ford implemented this concept in his automotive factory. He also came up with the first ever employee welfare department which ensured that no part of employee’s life effected his/her productivity in the workplace. However the methods were more personnel control oriented. By the 1960s, the notion of personnel management had become well-established with a number of clear areas of responsibility attached to it including: †¢ Selection and recruitment †¢ Training and development †¢ Pay and conditions †¢ Industrial relations Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 8 Employee welfare †¢ Occupational health and safety. In the 1980s, the concept of human resource management began to gain ground. At the root of the new thinking about the management of people in organizations was the perception of the increasing competitiveness of the global economy. The success of large Japanese corporations in export markets for traditional western products such as cars and electronic goods in the 1970s and 80s took many western corporations by surprise. Studies of Japanese corporations emphasized the importance of effective people management in the competitive strategies of these organizations. The studies showed that Japanese employers performed far better than their western competitors in terms of labor productivity and in process innovation. The key to this success lay in the human resource management practices adopted by Japanese corporations such as Toyota and Matsushita. These practices became evident in western countries as Japanese corporations established manufacturing plants throughout Europe and North America. The human resource management practices which had been so successful in Japan were transplanted with great success to these overseas transplants. The practices included: †¢ Strict and rigorous selection and recruitment †¢ High level of training, especially induction training and on the job training †¢ Team working †¢ Multi-skilling †¢ Better management-worker communications †¢ Use of quality circles and an emphasis on right first time quality †¢ Encouragement of employee suggestions and innovation †¢ Single status symbols such as common canteens and corporate uniforms. The integration of these human resource management practices was to create an organizational culture that allowed workers to identify their own success with that of the corporation. Thus, organizational or corporate culture became an important element in understanding the competitive success of firms and was a major theme of management thinking in the early 1980s. These new human resource management practices and the emphasis on the creation and maintenance of corporate culture stood in sharp contrast to the regulatory view of personnel management that had emerged in the mid-20th century. In fact, many of the new practices were not seen as the exclusive province of the human resource manager but were viewed as the responsibility of line managers in organizations. Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 The Criticism Although the roots of human resource management might be relatively clear historically, the term itself and the meaning of human resource management has been the subject of fierce debate amongst practitioners, academics and commentators since its emergence in the early 1990s. Some have simply substituted the term human resource management for perso nnel management and claimed that everything has remained the same. In some cases, this can be seen in the migration of job titles that took place in the last decade as the title of human resource manager has replaced that of personnel manager. Others have argued that human resource management represents a fundamentally new way of managing people at work that goes well beyond the old functional notion of personnel management and emphasizes the creation of a culture in the workplace that harnesses the commitment of individuals to the organization. Yet others, exasperated with the endless definitional debate that seems to surround human resource management, have argued that it is simply an illusion, a â€Å"hologram† behind which we may see many techniques and practices in operation but which is essentially determined by the observer. However, the notion of employee commitment is one which appears to be integral to many of the models and theories of human resource management that have appeared. This notion of harnessing the commitment of employees in organizations was first articulated strongly by Walton (1985) who described how modern organizations were moving their management styles from one based on control, to one based on commitment. Human resource management clearly encompasses the older regulatory hangovers, but goes much further in embracing the management of change, job design, socialization and appraisal as the key levers to achieve organizational success. Modern Human Resource Management The aims of human resource management today are not just integration with the business strategy of the organization, employee commitment, flexibility and quality, but takes commitment as a major integral element. â€Å"Human resource management is a distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce using an array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques†. The main assumptions underlying the modern concept of human resource management shows how much the concept has progressed from the ld notion of personnel management. Firstly, human resource management is clearly not simply the province of the human resource manager. Line managers play a critical role in human resource management and, in fact, could be argued to be the main Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 10 organizational exponents of people management. Second ly, human resource management is firmly embedded in business strategy. Unlike the personnel manager, the HR manager is part of the top level strategic team in the organization and human resource management plays a key role in the achievement of business success. Thirdly, the shaping of organizational culture is one of the major levers by which effective human resource management can achieve its objectives of a committed workforce. Thus, human resource management is concerned not only with the formal processes of the management of people but also with all the ways in which the organizational culture is established, re-enforced and transmitted. Challenges faced by HR as a Profession The sense that HR is somehow ‘failing to deliver’ is a central theme in the writings of a number of influential American writers. Jeffrey Pfeiffer (1997), for example, writing about the future of Human Resource Management, suggests that it would be wrong to conclude that the growing interest in HR and Human Resource Management necessarily means that the future of the HR function (in its departmental form) is bright: â€Å"My advice is to resist the temptation to believe that HR managers and staff in organizations have a rosy future or a future at all, because there are some profound problems facing human resources as a function within organizations, as contrasted with the study of human resources as a topic area that makes its viability and continued survival problematical. What has emerged so far in this critical perspective on HR is that many of the activities that HR professionals engage in appear not to be valued by managers and employees. This is because there is either no evidence that the activities actually achieve things that matter or because it is very difficult to prove that what HR does actually r esults in improvements in behavior and performance. If the latter is the reason, then the task of HR is to look carefully at the way in which it measures and evaluates effectiveness; if the problem is more to do with what HR does and how it carries out these activities, then the challenge it faces is more fundamental. The HR function is generally criticized to be an accomplice in trends such as downsizing and contingent work arrangements that are often blamed to undo much of the progress made in managing employee relationships in the past several decades. Also HR professionals are accused of showing lack of leadership in demonstrating the business impact of managing people effectively. Writers such as David Ulrich have suggested redefining HR role not by what it does but by what it delivers: results that enrich the organization’s value to customers, investors and employees. The four key roles that HR professionals need to play to deliver the contributions are as follows: ? A partner in strategy execution: This doesn’t mean that HR should take responsibility for HR and business strategy, which is rightly the domain of the chief executive, but that the head Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 11 of the HR department should be an equal partner with other senior managers and should ‘have a seat at the top table’. An administrative expert: This is about getting the basics right and adopting a much more instrumental approach to the use of procedures. The emphasis needs to be on the efficiency of the HR department — reducing its cost base and speeding up its cycle times, without compromising on quality or effectiveness ? An employee champion: This is about HR recognizing that work intensification and an increased sense of insecurity are becoming the new reality for many people and that this is associated with weakened levels of employee commitment. This, in turn, affects the preparedness of employees to contribute more than their contracted level of effort and performance. The role of HR here is to ensure that employees remain engaged and committed, or become re-engaged, either directly through the activities of HR or by HR working with line managers to ensure that they can create a positive psychological and emotional working environment. ? A change agent: According to Ulrich (1997), this role involves HR in building the organization’s capacity to embrace and to capitalize on change. Given that change is the norm for most organizations, the ability to implement and manage the change process is seen as critical to the organization’s ability to function during the change process and to reap the benefits from the changes that have been made. Reducing resistance to change is seen as a key HR contribution. Gaps between HR Academics & Practice There's an incontestable gap between what's happening in scholarly research and what's happening in the world of practitioner. However, there's consensus among academics and research-savvy HR professionals, that HR managers who follow evidence-based principles are best positioned to optimize the success of their organizations. Still, most HR professionals have little time, interest or tolerance for reading researches. Practitioners focus on solving problems and getting tasks done in time- and pressure-packed settings. Academics explore, contemplate and pursue research that can take three years or more before culminating in a journal article. HR practitioners don’t care about the theory behind the practices. They don't care why processes, tests, or other instruments or procedures work, just that they do. If wearing plaid instead of polka dots on Tuesday’s increases retention, they'll do it. According to a business school professor, â€Å"People want to Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 12 see cost-benefit analyses before they implement. It's not enough to know structured interviews will give you better-quality people. Practitioners want to see how it affects the bottom line. † Research and academic findings may not always have concrete outcomes. For practitioners ambiguity doesn’t help. They want concrete solutions supported with business outcomes something translated into profits, often missing in HR research. Academics tend to be interested in different subjects than practitioners. For practitioners, those subjects may be too theoretical or too esoteric, or may not be a need-to-know priority. But for academics, whose careers rise or fall on their success at achieving tenure and promotion, the topics are influenced by what the academic reward structure requires. Fault lies with HR curriculums. HR curriculums should develop the competency in all HR professionals to know what is and is not a scientifically based finding or conclusion. We need to audit our curriculums to make sure students are being taught to appreciate the importance of evidence-based management and the role of research in advancing HR. That requires basic understanding of math and statistics. Most undergraduate business and industrial psychology curriculums feature at least one course in statistics, and some observers say that should suffice. In recent years, faculty members have been reluctant to add more quantitative requirements to HR curriculums for fear of losing students. According to my observations most people choose HR because they are math-phobic. Also there is little emphasis on doing research and supporting it quantitatively. In most MBA programs graduate students are not being asked to do research or even read it. When I asked an MBA student his point of view about research, he said; â€Å"MBA students don't like reading research, so instead students are just discussing cases and practicing being a leader. The HR curriculum should be designed in a way that forces students to engage in consulting. Thus, forcing them to connect the taught courses with field knowledge and enabling them to do hands on research and get comfortable with statistics. This will force them to do analysis and make interpretations. Academics who moonlight as consultants are more likely to relate to the realities of the workplace. Encour age faculty and practitioners to develop and partner in research. Establish conferences or thinktank sessions that bring them together. Encourage exchanges. Cross attendance does occur, but not in enough numbers to create a shared comfort zone. Businesspeople should also cooperate with researchers to enhance body of knowledge and include practical aspects rather than unworkable theories. Another way to increase practical knowledge base is to support sponsored research. Corporations should invest in academics doing research that practitioners need. Experts agree that applied research should meet three criteria. It should be: ? ? ? Rigorous–conducted scientifically so the results can be validated and replicated. Relevant–directed at learning more about, furthering or solving some HR-related problem. Readable–accessible to practitioners who stand to benefit. Bushra Fatima, NUST Business School, 2010 13 Conclusion As a profession HR needs to defend its value by aligning itself with organization’s strategy and focus on achieving business strategy instead of just working as a support function. The HR academia suffers in terms of creating practical value because of its lack of collaboration with HR practitioners. The two can benefit each other and enhance body of knowledge which is far better applicable in real work environments.