Play Therapy Theories Children And Young People Essay

Play Therapy Theories Children And Young People Essay Play is important for the childs holistic development including their physical, language, social, emotional and cognitive development. Play allows children to learn naturally from the world around them to gain life skills and understanding Play allows children to freely explore the world around them, without adult direction. Play allows the child to create, challenge, imagine, engage and explore satisfying activities for both themselves and others. Children may use equipment; play alone or with others, in energetic or calm manner. Play is a vital component for a childs development and lives and is essential to be promoted where possible (Play England, 2007). Play is the primary and natural medium of communication for children (Axline, 1947). Children may not have the capacity to use words to express themselves, but with the assistance of play therapists, communication and understanding can occur between both the child and therapist. As children do not have the same abilities to communicate and express themselves verbally and as effectively as an adult can, play gives children the opportunity to express their emotions and experiences. This can provide a foundation to build relationships with the play therapist and others, allowing their needs and requirements to be known and to gain a better understanding of themselves (Landreth, 2002). Play therapy then, is a medium of therapy in which play is used, to observe children engaging in play. By providing resources of play materials and knowledge of theory around play therapy, therapists can identify and examine the childs underlying issues. Wilson Ryan, (2005) state that the importance of play therapy is to allow children move from being unaware of their hidden, unconscious feelings they may have as a result of life experiences, and gain an understanding of their emotions and experiences enabling them to come to terms with feelings. OConnor and Schaefer (1994) maintain the aim of play therapy is to bring children to a level of emotional and social functioning or level with their developmental stage. This can allow usual developmental process to be resumed. Play Therapy is an active process between both the play therapist and the child. It allows the child to explore their surroundings at his or her own pace. The child has his or her own schema of their issues which may be current and of conscious awareness or, hidden in the past and possibly buried in the unconscious. These issues whether of conscious awareness or not may affect the childs daily lifestyle influencing feelings and behaviour. Play therapy is child centred and the play therapist focuses on play as the first and paramount medium of therapy, with speech the second medium of therapy (British Association of Play Therapists, 2008). The Irish Play Therapy Association (2013) claim, Play Therapy is an effective method of therapy for children who display or encounter many difficulties or issues. Behavioural difficulties may include depression, aggression, anxiety and other issues relating to difficult encounters or life experiences of abuse, death of a family member, divorce or separation and trauma (www.ipta.ie, 2013). A history of Play Therapy Play Therapy dates back as far as 1909 in Europe with the work of Sigmund Freud (1909/1955) and the first documented psychoanalytic therapeutic work focusing on a child was the case of Little Hans. Freud discovered the childs phobias through observations of his play behaviours and dreams. This case encouraged further development of Freuds work and eventually the development of play therapy. While Freud used interpretation of the unconscious motivation of a child building a relationship with the child, but he came to the understanding that unlike adults, children do not decide to enter into psychoanalysis. Without consent or understanding the therapist brings the child into this analysis. Anna Freud (1946) followed her fathers interest of play, but developed her own theories. She held that adults undergoing psychoanalysis are required to provide the therapist with information to assist the session, however with children the background information is expressed usually, but not always by the parent. Melanie Klein (1955) believed the use of psychoanalysis could benefit children in a variety of ways, even if their development was atypical. Klein also believed in using observations with children during their play and behavioural actions and not through their expression of speech as is used within adult psychoanalysis. Klein therefore introduced toys into her sessions to promote play and allow observation of actions to occur. Virginia Axline working in America was influenced by Carl Rogers work on non- directive client centred psychotherapy. Therefore, Axline built on Rogers theory resulting in a new therapeutic approach for working alongside children, known as non directive play therapy. As in adult psychotherapy, the relationship between the therapist and the child in play therapy is based on being genuine, on acceptance and trust. The theory is that if children are given the opportunity to freely express their feelings and emotions they will resolve these issues themselves, using play experiences and the assistance of their play therapist in order to achieve this (Wilson Ryan, 2005). Axline (1950) stated that non- directive play therapy is a play experience that is therapeutic because it provides a secure relationship between the child and the adult, so that the child has the freedom and room to state himself in his own terms, exactly as he is at that moment in this own way and in his own time (p. 68). Axline based her theory on her work with a young boy called Dibs. Axline held that Dibs healed himself through no direction over a period of time. She said No-one ever knows as much about a human beings inner world as the individual himself. Responsible freedom grows and develops from inside the person. (Wilson Ryan, 2005). Axline, unlike Freud and Klein who both focused primarily on psychoanalysis, believed children would do their best to meet their full potential and by providing a therapeutic relationship and approach which would support that development. Many therapists today base their work on Axlines (1947) eight principle guidelines Axlines principles outline, The importance of developing a relationship between the therapist and client from the beginning. Accepting the child and who they are without judgement. Provide the child with a safe environment to express their feelings completely. The therapist is alert and available to provide the child with feedback to assist the clients behaviour, The therapists provides the child with a scaffold to learn how to cope and solve their own problems and to respect their choices. The therapist is required not to direct the child in any manner, unless where the childs safety is at risk. The therapist allows the child to lead the session and the therapist follows their lead. The therapist is patient and understands it is a gradual process requiring time. The therapist provides limits that are essential to assist the therapy into a sense of reality and provide the client with information in relation to their responsibilities within the relationship (Axline, 1947). Based on Axlines theory of non-directive play therapy, Landreth (2002) developed his theory of Child Centred Play Therapy. Landreth (2002) states the relationship between the child and the therapist must be different from other types of relationships the child has experienced. The relationship between the two is to ensure the child feels safe and comfortable to be expressive within their play, allowing natural communication to occur. He believes the true foundation to the relationship within child centred therapy is that of the bond between the therapist and child (Landreth 2002). Another influential contribution to the area of play therapy is the work of David Levy (1938). Levys Release Therapy allows children release their anxieties through controlled play set out by the therapist. Levy provided free play therapy based on Kleins theory of free play. Toys are introduced into the settings that are related to the event that requires intervention and the child plays freely with the chosen toys. Growth of Play Therapy Child psychotherapy has established a strong tradition across Europe and has grown significantly. In Ireland, child psychotherapy has grown more slowly in comparison to American and Europe. However, professionals interest in play as a therapeutic intervention has developed gradually over the past decade. Practioners are becoming more increasingly aware of the seriousness of emotional issues experienced by children and the difficulties that may arise. These children are likely to require more serious treatment that may not be available to them. Play Therapy Theories and Approaches There are two techniques used within Play Therapy, non- directive Play Therapy and Directive Play Therapy. Non directive play therapy approaches are referred to as , child-focused, client centred and unstructured, where components of directive play therapy are described as structured, directive and focused Gil (1994). Gil (1994), elaborates on various directive play techniques, including behavioural or gestalt, but suggests that non directive play therapy is a more child focused approach. He explains that non-directive play therapy provides the child the freedom to participate in their own way throughout the session, allowing the therapy to move in specific direction required for the session. Within structured play therapy, the play therapist plans activities adapting a directive play approach. During the formation of a relationship between the therapist and client within directive Play Therapy a less directive technique is used. This allows the therapist to build a foundation to the relationship and over time, directive techniques are weaned into the relationship (Jones, Casado and Robinson, 2003). Similarly, supporting this concept, Berting (2009) suggests that building on the concept on developing a therapeutic relationship using a less directive approach is best practice, before proceeding with more directive activities in the core area of the play therapy session. He also suggests observing the childs need to be able to or prepared to carry out directive play therapy. Non-Directive Play Therapy ( who are the key people in NDPT and explain what you will discuss With over 60 years of influential work, Axlines contribution to non directive play therapy was outstanding. He is known as the founder of non directive play therapy and his work still influences play therapists in many ways. He believed the play therapist should have very little influence on the clients play and the client should communicate through their play, which is still a core principle today. The idea of reaching your full potential as a child in play therapy was originally proposed by Axline (1947). He explained the theory of progressing towards full potential occurs because of the formation of the therapeutic relationship, and not that of specialised techniques. Ray, Blanco, Sullivan, and Holliman (2009) support Axlines theory by stating the play therapists develops a relationship with the client by building on their acceptance.. In return, the client develops self-acceptance which results in moving towards their full potential. Today, play therapists continue to build on the foundations of non-directive approach guided by Axlines creative work, the area of non-directive play therapy continues to progress, more than 60 years later. Client-centred play therapy. Developing the ideas of Axline (1947) and Moustakas (1959), Landreth (2002) improved their theories to develop client centred play therapy. In Play Therapy Virginia Axline (1947/69) suggests that the individual has within himself the ability to solve his own problems, and that in play therapy, where conditions for growth are optimal, the child reaches for independence (Axline, 1955). She expressed the importance of the therapist to allow the child to explore and investigate the room and toys with his own initiative with support of the experience and the relationship (Axline, 1955). Star this section from Moustakas Moustakas (1959) felt children required the need to feel they were understood gain self directed skills in order to grow. These skills could be achieved through client centred play therapy, focusing on the clients direction throughout the session. Astramovich (1999) supported the client centred therapy approach stating it focuses on the growth and development of the child, and this can be achieved by the child directing their own play through the session. Directive Play Therapy Explain to the reader what approaches you will cover: McMahon (1992) states directive play therapy aims to prepare children for an event that is about to occur, for example surgery or other unpleasant events. Directive play therapy works towards treating the childs anxieties they may be unaware of. McMahon (1992) suggests the directive approach is closer to psychotherapy than to Axlines non directive theory. She elaborates on the therapist having the skills to deal with unexpected circumstances which may arise, and always be prepared and accept the childs response. Oaklander (1978) holds that there are the benefits of fantasy and projective methods to use in directive play therapy. He suggests asking children to draw their family as symbols or animals, directing their play to observe their emotional needs. The use of Gestalt methods is expanding over time, the theory behind this approach is beneficial to the child to deal with their feelings they are experiencing at the present, instead to going too far back towards traumatic experiences (McMahon, 1992). Cognitive Behavioural play therapy Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a form of psychotherapy originally developed for adults, and aims to identify and modify negative thinking styles that cause negative emotions and the maladaptive behaviours associated with those thinking styles (Knell Dasari, 2009). Cognitive behavioural play therapy is a sensitive approach seen to be effective when working with children based on CBT from 8 years and above with various disorders. Cognitive behavioural play therapy is used to teach children strategies to change their negative thinking and views in order to develop positive thinking and understandings (Knell Dasari 2009). Green (2008) elaborates on the various styles of the cognitive behavioural approach used within play therapy including, changing their cognitive development, discussing and eliminating senseless beliefs or ideas and cognitive misrepresentations. The play therapist modifies the cognitive behavioural therapy to suit the needs of the child within play therapy. Gestalt play therapy Gestalt play therapy, according to Oaklander (2001), focuses on the holistic views of the child, including their body, their emotional state, and their mind. Gestalt Play therapy focuses on the childs ability to understand how to express their emotions and is essential for a healthy understanding of their own emotions. Oaklander (2001) supports his theory by developing a variety of ways to express ones emotions. Oaklander (2001) suggests clay, art, crafts and puppets to help assist the expression of emotions through play in a directive manner. The Gestalt work focuses on the what and how rather than the why as found (Oaklander 2001) found. Alderian Play Therapy Within Adlerian Therapy, the therapist focuses on and examines the lifestyle of the client and tries to form a relationship of respect and trust with the client in order to set and reach their goals. Adlerian play therapy is a little different as it sets out to appeal to the child but is focused on the Adlerian method just in a child friendly manner. (Morrison 2009). Kottman (2001) suggests Adlerian play therapy may use techniques from non- directive and focused play therapy in order to the help the child build confidence, courage and abilities by using the Adlerian play therapy method. It is believed within the Adlerian method behaviours carried out by the client are intentional and by using the Adlerian method of play therapy, children can learn to develop coping mechanisms and strategies as suggested by Kottman and Warlick (1989). Psychoanalytic play therapy Melanie Klein, Anna Freud, studied under the Freudian psychoanalysis each developing their beliefs. Both individuals had a major influence of the development of psychoanalytical play therapy Melanie Klien believed all play was symbolic; in contrast to this Anna Freud believed it was the replay of real life events. Anna believed play therapy was allowing children to talk about the conscious feelings and thoughts and to act out the unconscious; however Klien in contrast to Anna Freud made interpretations from the unconscious meanings to from their play and felt strongly this was the correct understanding (McMahon 1992). Freud argues for the importance of building a relationship between the therapist and the client in order to provide adequate therapy to the client. She did not believe in interpreting the clients play until the relationship was developed amongst both parties (Cattanach, 1992). Klien argues against Freud, emphasising the importance to begin interpretation without the foundations of a relationship with the child resulting in delays to the therapy (Cattanach, 1992). Parental / Primary Carer Involvement The input and involvement of the primary carer is significant when providing Play Therapy to Children. Involvement provides positive outcomes to both the therapist and the child. The therapist can receive back ground information of the problem, the events and behaviours, the primary carer can provide the therapist with information in relation to the childs progress. Primary carer involvement provides security, stability and emotional support for the child if the therapy may become distressing for the child. A parents emotional availability is suggested to be the tool to success of Play Therapy (Wilson Ryan, 2005) Primary carers may be unaware of what Play Therapy is, and how it is used. As the primary carer brings the child to the centre weekly it is suggested that the therapist should provide adequate information and assistance in relation to the treatment and their part in the therapy (Wilson and Ryan 2005). The therapist should ensure they dont replace the parent child relationship although their relationship is significant for successful results and progress. Play Therapists can involve parents in a variety of ways, for instance the therapist can ask for the parent to sit in on the therapy to assist the settling period, therapist provide feedback to the parents, after each session or after a particular period of time. This can allow therapists provide parents with advice and ideas of how to bring the therapy into the home and provide consistency (Landreth, 2001 and McGuire McGuire, 2001). Training There are independent organisations that within their own country have their own play therapy training; however they adopt the standards of Play Therapy Internationals standards. Their training is recognised and certified. Play Therapy Ireland, Play Therapy United Kingdom and Play Therapy Canada are well developed and link with Play Therapy Ireland through their practice. Other countries are gradually developing their own Play Therapy International standards. The Childrens Therapy Centre are the only APT approved provider in Ireland. Their courses are recognised by the Irish Association for Play Therapy and have approved quality assurance standards with both FETAC and HETAC. Conclusion In this chapter a review of the current literature relating to play therapy was addressed. I will present a small scale study carried out on the perception of Play Therapists. In the next chapter I will outline and discuss methods for gathering data for this study. A

Sporting Goods

What promotional activities might Prince use to reach the following segments: (a) recreational players and (b) junior players? The first thing that Prince needs to do is find different ways to appeal to both generation gaps in the tennis industry. It is important to keep all the Baby Boomer customers and still grasp the attention of the younger generation. In efforts to get the attention of the junior players, Prince utilizes social media sites like face book and twitter as one way of promoting to junior players.The use of Prince teaching Pro Program is excellent for targeting recreational players! Prince’s website directly reaches tennis players of all ages giving them information on products, tennis tips, and the latest news from the industry. Prince teaching pro program can be used to target the junior players more because it gives demo rackets, equipment information, and the latest product information better assisting them with developing their skills and understanding whi ch equipment could better their skills and help them become more experienced tennis players.In efforts to attract the attention of both junior and recreational players, Prince holds local â€Å"Prince Demo Events†. This event allows potential customers an opportunity to experience hands on different prince rackets, grips, and strings. What might Prince do to help it gain distribution and sales in (a) mass merchandisers like Target and Wal-Mart and (b) specialty tennis shops?To gain distribution and sales in large chains, Prince uses co-op advertising for in-store circulars, point of purchase displays, and consumer brochures assisting the retailers set up of Prince Products in their sports (tennis) section of the stores. For small specialty tennis shops, Prince issues a supply of demo rackets, detailed catalogs, equipment fixtures, string and racket guides, racket hooks, and tennis shelves. He also issues â€Å"player standees†, which are large life size cut outs of pro fessional tennis players to these small specialty shops.

An editorial about the writings of Ida B. Wells Essay

Ida B. Wells wrote the three pamphlets â€Å"Southern Horrors† (1892), â€Å"A Red Record† (1895), and â€Å"Mob Rule in New Orleans† (1900) as an attempt to publicize the atrocities being committed against African Americans in the New South. These writings are important today, not because lynching of African Americans occurs with any regularity, but because they are accounts contemporary with the events they detail and because the pamphlets illustrate the dangers of: mob rule, justifying immoral acts by claiming to have a moral purpose, and the tendency of people everywhere to strike out against anything new or different with violence. This message is even more relevant today when the current president is so willing to suspend the rights of others so that the people of America can be â€Å"safe†. The fear of one group of people who mistrust another group should never result in suspension of rights of another. Just like the eroding of the rights of African Americans during the time when Wells was writing, the suspension of rights of people who look as if they are or might be terrorists in the current world is wrong and should not be tolerated. Ida B. Wells wrote with two purposes in mind: one was educational, the other was to publicize the atrocities committed in the New South with the hope of eliciting reaction from people who would then help bring an end to â€Å"Lynch Law† and other injustices committed against African Americans. Wells wanted to educate those people who were unfamiliar with the New South regarding the violence and double standards far to common in the South. Wells wrote to tell the facts about lynchings in the South so that people would no longer believe lynching was a response to an egregious crime. â€Å"She sought to recast lynching in the public eye so that it was not perceived as an understandable though unpleasant response to heinous acts, but as itself a crime against American values† (Wells 27). According to Wells the perception that all white women were pure and uninterested in have African Americans as husbands is untrue, â€Å"there are many white women in the Sought who would marry colored men if such an act would not place them at once beyond the pale of society and within the clutches of the law† (Wells 53). At the same time laws forbade African American men and white women from â€Å"commingling,† Wells points out â€Å"they leave the white man free to seduce all the colored girls he can† (Wells 53). Although Wells writing centers on lynching because of alleged rape she makes an important point when she cautions that â€Å"a concession of the right to lynch a man for any crime, . . . concedes the right to lynch any person for any crime, . . . † (Wells 61). Wells also wanted to call citizens of the North, government officials and people in Great Britain to act to end lynch law. She urged them â€Å"employ boycott, emigration and the press . . . to stamp out lynch law . . . † (Wells 72). Ida B. Wells wrote to three different audiences. To those people living in the New South Wells wrote not so much about horrific events that occurred, but about the justifications they used to excuse their behavior. As mentioned above, she wrote of the double standard between the races and of the potential danger of expanding lynching to suit the whims and fancies of any mob at any time. To those Americans living outside the South Wells wrote to shock them with the descriptions of the horrid events, to educate them about how African Americans were still being treated despite the Civil War and despite the Constitutional Amendments guaranteeing rights to African Americans. Wells writes to the people of the North to show them that all is not well in the South and that the advances made in the past were being pushed aside. In her first pamphlet, â€Å"Southern Horrors,† Wells wrote about the existing injustices and ongoing terrorist acts performed against African Americans. To the rest of the world, particularly Great Britain, Wells wrote â€Å"A Red Record† she â€Å"respectfully submitted [this pamphlet] to the Nineteenth Century civilization in ‘the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave† (Wells title page). This pamphlet recounts the numbers and details of more than four hundred lynchings occurring in the United States against African Americans. Wells hoped to appeal to the sensibilities of British people who were potential investors in the South so they would invest elsewhere â€Å"the appeal to the white man’s pocket has ever been more effectual than all the appeals ever made to his conscience. † To those in power in the United States Wells wrote â€Å"Mob Rule in New Orleans† to those in power in hopes of their bringing to an end to authorities who allow, and at times encourage mobs to act. Although it is difficult to quantify what the actual affects of Wells’ writing were, it is clear that during the next century, the groups she wrote for did make great strides toward establishing equality and eliminating injustices based on race. It is not unreasonable to suggest that Wells’ writing had a hand in starting this process. Wells’ writings are certainly among the earliest of Post-reconstruction writing to reintroduce the difficulties of African American lives, but they were not the last. It is likely that her writing influenced and encouraged others to continue the work Wells began. As I read through the accounts of these horrible, disgusting lynchings I felt saddened and depressed. Clearly there were many injustices committed and many were people hurt, imprisoned, or killed. Some of these are particularly gruesome such as Chapter III of A Red Record, â€Å"Lynching Imbeciles: An Arkansas Butchery† where Henry Smith was tortured and burned at the stake (Wells 88-98). According to figures gathered by the NAACP (an organization with Wells as one of the founding members) there were 3,318 African Americans killed by lynching between 1892 and 1931. Certainly one cannot dismiss or excuse these egregious acts in any fashion. However I was not particularly surprised or shocked by these events. Perhaps it is because I live in a world where the Jewish Holocaust of World War II is well known, a world where a country, Cambodia, went mad, and slaughtered between 1. 5 and 3 million of 7 million its own citizens. Perhaps it is because I live in a world where the recent genocides in Rwanda and Somalia were largely unknown until made into a wide screen blockbuster movie. Perhaps it is because of the 9/11 attacks (coincidentally the number killed on 9/11 and the number of dead American soldiers in Iraq are remarkably similar to the 3300+ listed in the NAACP’s figures). For whatever reason, I find myself somewhat inured against these accounts. I am not sure whether this reveals more about me or about the society I live in, but I cannot help but wonder if Ida B. Wells were writing today would there be any impact at all.Perhaps not: more’s the pity. Works Cited Wells, Ida B. Southern Horrors and Other Writings: The Anti-Lynching Campaign of Ida B. Wells, 1892-1900. Ed. with intro Jacqueline Jones Royster. Boston: Bedford Books, 1997.

The Causes Of The American Revolution - 2249 Words

The Causes of the American Revolution England started settling in America in the early 1600s when the settlement of Jamestown was built; eventually throughout the years this lead to the American colonies because more Englishmen and women decided that they too would start a new life in the â€Å"New World,† and more people means more houses for the people and more houses and buildings leads to more colonies being formed. This process of forming new colonies under British rule ended in 1732 when Georgia (the 13th American colony) became an American colony; however, since these colonies have been around for over a century these colonists have had an immense amount of time distant from England they begin to get a taste of this freedom and after†¦show more content†¦This all began with the Navigation Acts. These acts stated that any exports that the colonies sent out had to be transported by British ships; however, England was still lenient with this law, especially in 172 1 when the Navigation Acts became more â€Å"relaxed.† England did not want to enforce this law because more colonial trade meant a chance for British goods to be sold which led to benefitting England’s economy (â€Å"Why Were the Colonists Upset†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). However, one law led to another; 42 years after the navigation acts became â€Å"relaxed† in 1721 the Expansion Boundary was put into place in 1763 (â€Å"Why Were the Colonists Upset†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). After fighting the French for 9 long years in the French and Indian War, the colonists thought that they would finally have some peace with settling west; instead the opposite happened. The colonists’ expectations were not met at all because of the Expansion Boundary no one was allowed to settle west of the line, and any settlements that were already on the other side of the boundary had to be abandoned. This proclamation was nothing like the Navigation Acts where the law was inconsistently enforce d, in fact, England sent in British soldiers that were posted along the boundary to prevent anyone from crossing to the western side of America (â€Å"Why Were the Colonists Upset†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). This new boundary obviously made the colonists angry at their home country, but to top everything off King George III made the colonists pay for theseShow MoreRelatedThe Revolution : The Cause Of The American Revolution1898 Words   |  8 Pages The American Revolution was the turning point for the colonies that made up the United States today. It was the war that freed the colonists from British control. But what actually caused the American Revolution? 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